Face Value

The second function is anchoring the coupon payment. The annual dollar interest payment equals the coupon rate multiplied by the face value — not the market price. Under the indenture, a five percent coupon on a one-thousand-dollar face value bond pays fifty dollars annually, delivered as two twenty-five-dollar semiannual payments. This dollar amount is contractually fixed for the bond's entire life under the Trust Indenture Act framework. If the bond subsequently trades at eleven hundred dollars, the issuer still pays only fifty dollars per year. Face value is the permanent denominator of every coupon calculation.

The third function is providing the reference point for price quotation. Bond prices are quoted as a percentage of face value under market convention. A price of ninety-five means the bond trades at nine hundred and fifty dollars per one-thousand-dollar face value bond. A price of one hundred and two means it trades at one thousand and twenty dollars. This percentage convention — confirmed by FINRA's bond investor resources and by MSRB Rule G-15 governing customer confirmations for municipal securities — allows bonds with different absolute dollar prices and face values to be compared on a standardised basis.

Face Value Versus Market Value

Face value is fixed at issuance and does not change under any market condition for the entire life of the bond. Market value fluctuates continuously in response to changes in prevailing market interest rates, the issuer's credit quality, time remaining to maturity, and investor sentiment.

When market value equals face value, the bond trades at par. When market value exceeds face value, the bond trades at a premium — which occurs when prevailing market rates have fallen below the bond's coupon rate. When market value falls below face value, the bond trades at a discount — which occurs when prevailing market rates have risen above the coupon rate. The yield implications of each pricing state are examined in depth in the entries on Coupon Rate and Discount Bond.

A bond issued five years ago at one-thousand-dollar face value with a four percent coupon may trade today at eight hundred and seventy dollars if rates have risen, or at one thousand and eighty dollars if rates have fallen. Its face value is one thousand dollars in both cases. The market value has changed. The face value has not.

Clean Price, Dirty Price, and Accrued Interest

When a bond is purchased between coupon payment dates — which applies to virtually every secondary market transaction — the buyer must compensate the seller for interest that has accrued since the last coupon payment. This accrued interest belongs economically to the seller, who held the bond and bore the issuer's credit risk during that period.

The clean price is the quoted market price expressed as a percentage of face value, excluding accrued interest. Financial data providers, trading systems, and market publications quote the clean price because it strips out the mechanical accrual that rises and falls between coupon dates and allows meaningful price comparison across bonds at different stages of their accrual cycles.

The dirty price — also called the full price or invoice price — is the actual cash the buyer pays at settlement. Under MSRB Rule G-15(a)(i) and FINRA Rule 2232, which govern customer confirmations for municipal and corporate fixed income transactions respectively, dealers must disclose the dollar price on trade confirmations, which is the dirty price. The dirty price equals the clean price plus accrued interest, where accrued interest equals the coupon payment for the period multiplied by the fraction of that period elapsed since the last coupon date.

The day-count convention used to measure the elapsed fraction varies by instrument and is tested directly on the Series 7 examination. United States Treasury securities use the Actual/Actual convention — the actual number of calendar days elapsed divided by the actual number of calendar days in the coupon period, as codified in the Treasury's auction regulations at 31 CFR Part 356. Most corporate bonds and agency bonds use the 30/360 convention, which assumes each month has thirty days and each year has three hundred and sixty days regardless of the actual calendar. Municipal bonds also use 30/360 under MSRB convention. Eurobonds use 30E/360, a European variant with slightly different month-end handling.

Bonds in default trade flat — without accrued interest — because the market treats coupon payments as uncertain. Zero coupon bonds also trade flat because they make no periodic interest payments and therefore accumulate no accrued interest between periods.

Price Quotation Conventions by Instrument Type

The percentage-of-face-value quotation convention is universal across bond markets, but the granularity of quotation differs by instrument type — and these conventions are directly tested on the Series 7 examination.

Treasury notes and bonds are quoted in thirty-seconds of a point. A price of ninety-eight and sixteen thirty-seconds is written as 98-16 and equals ninety-eight and one-half percent of face value — nine hundred and eighty-five dollars per one-thousand-dollar bond. A plus sign following the fraction indicates an additional sixty-fourth of a point: 98-16+ equals ninety-eight and thirty-three sixty-fourths. Candidates must be able to convert Treasury fractional quotes into decimal prices and into dollar amounts for a given face value. The auction and settlement conventions governing Treasury price quotation are codified in 31 CFR Part 356, published by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service.

Corporate bonds are quoted in decimal form to two or three decimal places. A price of 97.450 means ninety-seven point four five percent of face value — nine hundred and seventy-four dollars and fifty cents per one-thousand-dollar bond. FINRA's TRACE system publishes post-trade corporate bond prices in this decimal format, providing the post-trade transparency required by FINRA Rule 6730 for all TRACE-reportable securities.

Municipal bonds are quoted either on a price basis as a percentage of face value, or on a yield basis — the yield to maturity or yield to call at which the market is bidding or offering — with the implied price calculated from the yield. MSRB Rule G-15(a)(i)(D) requires that when municipal bonds are quoted and traded on a yield basis, the dollar price must be disclosed to customers on the trade confirmation. The dollar price for a yield-basis municipal transaction is calculated using the standard bond pricing formula applying the stated yield to the bond's face value and remaining cash flows.

Original Issue Discount — The Tax Framework Governing Below-Par Issuance

When a bond is issued at a price below its face value, the difference between the issue price and the face value is original issue discount. OID arises deliberately in zero coupon bonds, which are issued at a deep discount and make no coupon payments, and arises incidentally in coupon-bearing bonds when the market yield at issuance slightly exceeds the coupon rate, causing the bond to price below par.

Under Internal Revenue Code Section 1273(a), OID is defined as the excess of the stated redemption price at maturity — which for most bonds equals the face value — over the issue price. A bond with a one-thousand-dollar face value issued at nine hundred and forty dollars has OID of sixty dollars. Section 1273(a) also establishes the de minimis rule: if the total OID is less than one-quarter of one percent of the stated redemption price at maturity multiplied by the number of complete years from original issuance to maturity, the OID is considered de minimis and may be treated as capital gain rather than ordinary income at disposition. A ten-year bond with a one-thousand-dollar face value has a de minimis threshold of two and a half percent of one thousand dollars, equalling twenty-five dollars. OID below twenty-five dollars on this bond qualifies for capital gain treatment.

Under Internal Revenue Code Section 1272(a)(1), holders of debt instruments with OID issued after July 1, 1982 must include a portion of the OID in gross income each year, using the constant yield method — also called the effective interest method — which applies the bond's yield to maturity to the adjusted issue price at the beginning of each accrual period to determine the income to be recognised. This daily accrual is taxed as ordinary interest income each year regardless of whether any cash is received, producing what practitioners call phantom income. The OID accreted each year also increases the investor's cost basis in the bond, reducing the capital gain or increasing the capital loss recognised upon eventual sale or maturity. The paying agent or broker reports OID annually to the investor on IRS Form 1099-OID.

IRC Section 1272(a)(2) provides three specific exclusions from the mandatory annual OID inclusion rule. Tax-exempt obligations — including most municipal bonds — are excluded because the OID, as a form of interest income, would be tax-exempt in any case. United States savings bonds are excluded. Short-term obligations with maturities of one year or less at issuance are excluded, consistent with the commercial paper exemption framework of the Securities Act of 1933.

For municipal bonds issued with OID, the OID is excluded from federal income taxation along with regular coupon interest under IRC Section 103, because OID on tax-exempt obligations represents additional tax-exempt interest rather than taxable income. However, municipal bonds purchased in the secondary market at a market discount — below their accreted adjusted issue price — are subject to the separate market discount rules of IRC Section 1276, which characterise accrued market discount as ordinary income upon sale or maturity even though the coupon interest on the same bond is tax-exempt. This distinction is one of the most precisely tested tax concepts in the Series 7 examination curriculum.

Zero Coupon Bonds — Face Value Without Intermediate Cash Flows

Zero coupon bonds represent the clearest illustration of how face value functions independently from coupon payments. A zero coupon bond pays no periodic interest and is issued at a deep discount to face value, with the face value paid in full at maturity constituting the investor's entire return.

A fifteen-year zero coupon Treasury bond with a face value of one thousand dollars issued at a yield to maturity of five percent prices at approximately four hundred and eighty dollars. The investor pays four hundred and eighty dollars today and receives one thousand dollars at maturity fifteen years later. The five hundred and twenty dollar difference — accreting over fifteen years at five percent under the constant yield method of IRC Section 1272 — is reportable as OID income annually in a taxable account even though no cash is received until maturity.

This phantom income liability makes zero coupon bonds generally unsuitable for taxable accounts and highly appropriate for tax-deferred retirement accounts governed by Internal Revenue Code Sections 401, 403, and 408, where the annual OID recognition does not trigger a current income tax obligation and the full compounding effect of the yield operates without annual tax drag.

Treasury STRIPS — The Federal Programme

Treasury STRIPS — Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities — are zero coupon instruments created when the coupon and principal cash flows of eligible Treasury notes and bonds are separated and sold individually. The programme is governed by 31 CFR Section 356.31, promulgated by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service under the authority of Chapter 31 of Title 31 of the United States Code.

Under 31 CFR Section 356.31(a), notes and bonds designated in the offering announcement as eligible for the STRIPS programme may be stripped — divided into separate principal and interest components — at the option of the holder at any time from issuance until maturity. Stripping may only be done in the commercial book-entry system administered by the Federal Reserve Banks and the Depository Trust Company. Treasury bills and Floating Rate Notes are not eligible for stripping.

The minimum par amount that may be stripped under 31 CFR Section 356.31(b)(1) is one hundred dollars, with any par amount above one hundred dollars required to be in a multiple of one hundred dollars. The principal component — called the corpus — receives a CUSIP number distinct from the original unstripped security and from the interest components. Each coupon interest component receives a unique CUSIP number reflecting its specific maturity date. Under 31 CFR Section 356.31(b)(2)(iv), interest components with the same maturity date from different stripped securities share the same CUSIP number and are fungible — interchangeable — with each other, which enhances their liquidity in the secondary market.

OID on Treasury STRIPS is subject to federal income tax under IRC Section 1272 but is exempt from state and local income taxes, consistent with the tax treatment of all Treasury interest income under 31 U.S.C. Section 3124. Financial institutions, brokers, and dealers report OID on STRIPS annually on IRS Form 1099-OID. The phantom income characteristic of STRIPS makes them particularly well-suited to tax-deferred accounts, and they are widely used by pension funds and insurance companies to match known future liabilities with a fixed maturity payment of precisely known face value.

Face Value in Equity Securities — The Par Value Distinction

For common and preferred stock, face value — called par value in the equity context — carries a fundamentally different significance from its role in bonds. Stock par value is a nominal legal amount stated in the certificate of incorporation at the time of company formation, governed by state corporate law — most significantly the Delaware General Corporation Law — and has no relationship to the stock's market price, book value, or intrinsic value.

Under Accounting Standards Codification Topic 505, Equity, the proceeds of stock issuances on the balance sheet are divided between the stated capital account — par value multiplied by shares issued — and the additional paid-in capital account, which captures the excess of actual proceeds above par. This division has no economic significance for investors. A company may set common stock par value at one cent per share under Delaware General Corporation Law Section 102(a)(4) while the stock trades at two hundred and fifty dollars.

Candidates must be precise on this distinction. Face value for bonds is economically meaningful — it is the legally enforceable repayment amount at a known future date administered through the indenture trustee under the Trust Indenture Act of 1939. Par value for common stock is a historical legal artifact with no economic significance in the modern era. Confusing the two in an examination context will produce incorrect answers across multiple question categories.

For preferred stock, par value carries more practical meaning than it does for common stock. The stated dividend on cumulative preferred stock is expressed as a percentage of par value under the corporate charter, and the liquidation preference is typically set at par. Preferred stock par value therefore functions analogously to bond face value in the income and priority context, though it does not represent a maturity repayment obligation because preferred stock has no maturity date.

Denomination Standards by Instrument Type

Face value denominations vary systematically across bond categories and these differences are tested on the SIE and Series 7 examinations.

Corporate bonds are issued in one-thousand-dollar face value denominations as the standard unit. The Trust Indenture Act governs public offerings and requires that face value denominations be clearly specified in the indenture. FINRA Rule 2232 requires that customer confirmations for corporate bond transactions disclose the face value of the position alongside the dollar price.

United States Treasury securities are issued in one-hundred-dollar face value minimum units through TreasuryDirect under 31 CFR Part 356, with commercial market trading typically occurring in one-million-dollar or larger face value blocks among institutional participants.

Municipal bonds are commonly issued in five-thousand-dollar face value denominations, though one-thousand-dollar denominations are also used. The denomination structure for any specific municipal issue is disclosed in the official statement filed with the MSRB's Electronic Municipal Market Access system under MSRB Rule G-32 and SEC Rule 15c2-12, which govern primary market disclosure obligations for municipal securities dealers and issuers respectively.

Agency bonds issued by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the Federal Home Loan Banks are typically issued in one-thousand-dollar or ten-thousand-dollar face value denominations, with terms disclosed in the offering circular filed pursuant to the Federal Housing Finance Agency's disclosure requirements and Regulation AB under the Securities Act of 1933 for agency MBS.

Accounting Treatment of Face Value Under GAAP

Under Accounting Standards Codification Topic 835-30, Interest — Imputation of Interest, the effective interest method must be used to amortise bond premium and accrete bond discount over the life of a bond in the issuer's financial statements. The effective interest rate applied is the market yield at the date of issuance — the rate that equates the present value of all contractual cash flows to the bond's face value or issue price. For bonds issued at face value, no premium or discount amortisation is required. For bonds issued at a premium — above face value — the premium is amortised as a reduction of interest expense each period. For bonds issued at a discount — below face value — the discount is accreted as additional interest expense each period. The carrying value of the bond on the issuer's balance sheet moves from the issue price toward face value over the bond's life through this amortisation and accretion process, reaching face value at maturity by construction.

Examination Relevance and Key Takeaways

Face value is tested on the SIE, Series 7, and Series 65 examinations in the context of bond pricing, coupon calculations, yield relationships, accrued interest, price quotation conventions, OID taxation, Treasury STRIPS, and the distinction between face value and market value.

The key points to retain are these.

Face value is the contractually fixed amount the issuer repays at maturity under the indenture — it does not change regardless of secondary market price movements. Annual coupon payments equal the coupon rate multiplied by face value, not market price, and this dollar amount is fixed for the bond's entire life. Bond prices are quoted as a percentage of face value — one hundred representing par, above one hundred a premium, below one hundred a discount — with MSRB Rule G-15 and FINRA Rule 2232 requiring disclosure of the dollar price on customer confirmations.

Dirty price equals clean price plus accrued interest, with the clean price quoted in markets and the dirty price representing the actual settlement cash. Day-count conventions are Actual/Actual for Treasury securities under 31 CFR Part 356 and 30/360 for most corporate and municipal bonds. Bonds in default and zero coupon bonds trade flat without accrued interest.

OID under IRC Section 1273(a) equals face value minus issue price. Under IRC Section 1272(a)(1), OID on debt instruments issued after July 1, 1982 must be accreted annually as ordinary interest income using the constant yield method and reported on IRS Form 1099-OID — creating phantom income that makes zero coupon bonds unsuitable for taxable accounts. The de minimis rule under IRC Section 1273 treats total OID below one-quarter of one percent of face value multiplied by years to maturity as capital gain rather than ordinary income. Municipal bond OID is tax-exempt under IRC Section 103, but market discount on municipals purchased in the secondary market produces ordinary income under IRC Section 1276.

Treasury STRIPS are zero coupon instruments created by separating Treasury note and bond cash flows under 31 CFR Section 356.31, with a minimum strip size of one hundred dollars in multiples of one hundred. Each STRIPS component has its own CUSIP and face value. OID on STRIPS is federally taxable but exempt from state and local taxes under 31 U.S.C. Section 3124.

For equity securities, par value under ASC 505 is a nominal legal construct governing balance sheet presentation — economically irrelevant for common stock — though preferred stock par value is more meaningful because stated dividends and liquidation preferences are typically expressed as percentages of par. Corporate and Treasury bonds use one-thousand-dollar and one-hundred-dollar face value minimums respectively. Municipal bonds commonly use five-thousand-dollar denominations disclosed in the official statement under MSRB Rule G-32 and SEC Rule 15c2-12. Bond premium and discount relative to face value are amortised and accreted using the effective interest method under ASC 835-30.